Folk Dances:
15 Toea Maprik
35 Toea Kiriwina
45 Toea Kundiawa
70 Toea Fasu
Monday, June 29, 2009
Papua New Guinea - Folk Dances 1986
Folk Dances:
15 Toea Maprik
35 Toea Kiriwina
45 Toea Kundiawa
70 Toea Fasu
Sunday, June 28, 2009
Saint Lucia - Tourism & Music 1986
The Culture of Saint Lucia is a nice blend of French and English heritage with that of the Africans. The enslaved African community of the Caribbean has been able to built up a rich culture that epitomizes their warmheartedness and liveliness. Numerous festivals, carnivals, music concerts and dance parties held throughout the year show the richness of the Culture of Saint Lucia. Saint Lucia was once a British Colony. Hence English is the official language of this island nation while Creole, a form of French dialect, is a secondary language. Culture and Tradition in Saint Lucia is influenced by Christianity as most of the citizens are Catholic.Although Christians dominate the country but people of Saint Lucia respect others' religion. The Festivals in Saint Lucia are more of a social event than a religious one. Their cosmopolitan Culture of Saint Lucia has created a secular atmosphere. The cultural festivals in St Lucia include La Rose and La Marguerite. La Rose represents the Rosicrucian order while the other one is for Freemasons. Christianity being the major religion in the country Christmas inevitably is the country's biggest festival that is celebrated across the nation. During Christmas people greet each other heartily and a series of parades and cultural events and shows take place in various part of the country.
Music and dance are part and parcel of Saint Lucia's culture. The blend of European and Caribbean folk music has enriched the Culture and Traditions of Saint Lucia. Some of the popular music Festivals in Saint Lucia are Lucia Carnival Parade of the Bands and International Jazz Festivals. These festivals are held to promote the practice of music and spread the essence of Caribbean music all over the world. From western classical to various folk music genres such as calypso, zouk, soca and reggae the music played by Caribbean artists is sure to cast a spell over the audience. A vibrant folk dance form of St Lucia, Quadrille is also performed in these festivals.
The rich Cultural Heritage of Saint Lucia is manifested through these festivals and events. These festivals also serve as the platform for upcoming musicians and artiste of the country. They also create a cultural bond between people and thus carrying forward the tradition and Culture of Saint Lucia.
0.15 Cents Tourism: Chak-Chak Band
0.45 Cents Tourism: Folk Dancing
0.80 Cents Tourism: Steel Band
1.00 Dollars Tourism: Limbo Dancer
The Culture & People of St. Lucia
St. Lucia's culture has evolved from the intermingling of the many different groups of people who have participated in its history. Each has brought different beliefs and traditions, all of which are reflected in the life of the island today. A visitor is likely to drive on the British side of the road to an Indian restaurant in a French town, greeted all along the way in Creole patois.
One of the most accessible expressions of St. Lucia's rich cultural heritage is its cuisine. The fertile, volcanic soil of the island yields an enormous supply of produce, and the island is one of the leading banana exporters in the Caribbean, with six different varieties available. In addition to bananas, St. Lucia's abundant tropical fruits include mangoes, papayas, pineapples, soursops, passionfruit, guavas, and coconuts. Local chefs combine the island's fresh produce with a wide variety of equally fresh seafood to create tantalizing curries, Creole-style entrees, and pepperpot stews. Callaloo soup, made from a leafy green similar to spinach, is the national dish. The island's outstanding cuisine has recently gained international recognition by garnering several gold medals in the regions most prestigious culinary competitions.
But St. Lucia's culture extends far beyond the table, as the island has long held a reputation for its intellectual and artistic talents. St. Lucia has produced two Nobel Prizewinners: the late Sir W. Arthur Lewis, who won the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1979, and poet Derek Walcott, who won the 1992 Nobel Prize for Literature.
To understand as well as enjoy St. Lucia's culture is largely a matter of gaining some sense of the various peoples who have contributed to it. The first of these were the Arawaks and the Caribs, Amerindian peoples indigenous to the entire Caribbean. They were expert hunters, farmers, fishermen, and skilled artists. Their primary crops were cassava, yams, sweet potatoes, all of which still play a central role in the island's food. The Amerindians were decimated by the arrival of the Europeans, and only a small number of St. Lucians can still trace their roots back to this group. Some of the few particular aspects of Amerindian culture that survive include farina and cassava bread, fish-pots and other local craft items. Some villages still practice the ancient art of fishing in dug-out canoes.
The next group to arrive on the shores of the island were the Europeans, primarily the British and the French. Though the Europeans didn't settle St. Lucia in large numbers, they had an incalculable impact on the island's history and culture. The British and French influences seem to weigh equally, despite the fact that the French lost the island in 1814. To St. Lucia's complex cultural mosaic, the British contributed their language, educational system, and legal and political structure. French culture is more evident in the arts--music, dance, and Creole patois, which stands alongside the official language of English.
At the same time that the Europeans were bringing their own cultures to St. Lucia, African culture was becoming established through the arrival of slaves for European plantations and, later, indentured labourers. Their descendants constitute the largest percentage of the island's population, and their proud heritage has had an enormous impact on St. Lucia's character as a nation. African traditions have survived the repressions of slavery and servitude to become the strongest element in St. Lucian culture today.
After the abolition of slavery, East Indians came to St. Lucia as indentured servants. Most worked in the large sugar factories in the Cul-de-Sac, Roseau, and Mabouya valleys and in Vieux Fort, where there is still a significant East Indian community. In comparison to other immigrant groups, their numbers were small. Although their traditional culture has almost disappeared, the East Indians have had a notable and lasting influence on the island's fine cuisine.
But St. Lucia's culture extends far beyond the table, as the island has long held a reputation for its intellectual and artistic talents. St. Lucia has produced two Nobel Prizewinners: the late Sir W. Arthur Lewis, who won the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1979, and poet Derek Walcott, who won the 1992 Nobel Prize for Literature.
To understand as well as enjoy St. Lucia's culture is largely a matter of gaining some sense of the various peoples who have contributed to it. The first of these were the Arawaks and the Caribs, Amerindian peoples indigenous to the entire Caribbean. They were expert hunters, farmers, fishermen, and skilled artists. Their primary crops were cassava, yams, sweet potatoes, all of which still play a central role in the island's food. The Amerindians were decimated by the arrival of the Europeans, and only a small number of St. Lucians can still trace their roots back to this group. Some of the few particular aspects of Amerindian culture that survive include farina and cassava bread, fish-pots and other local craft items. Some villages still practice the ancient art of fishing in dug-out canoes.
The next group to arrive on the shores of the island were the Europeans, primarily the British and the French. Though the Europeans didn't settle St. Lucia in large numbers, they had an incalculable impact on the island's history and culture. The British and French influences seem to weigh equally, despite the fact that the French lost the island in 1814. To St. Lucia's complex cultural mosaic, the British contributed their language, educational system, and legal and political structure. French culture is more evident in the arts--music, dance, and Creole patois, which stands alongside the official language of English.
At the same time that the Europeans were bringing their own cultures to St. Lucia, African culture was becoming established through the arrival of slaves for European plantations and, later, indentured labourers. Their descendants constitute the largest percentage of the island's population, and their proud heritage has had an enormous impact on St. Lucia's character as a nation. African traditions have survived the repressions of slavery and servitude to become the strongest element in St. Lucian culture today.
After the abolition of slavery, East Indians came to St. Lucia as indentured servants. Most worked in the large sugar factories in the Cul-de-Sac, Roseau, and Mabouya valleys and in Vieux Fort, where there is still a significant East Indian community. In comparison to other immigrant groups, their numbers were small. Although their traditional culture has almost disappeared, the East Indians have had a notable and lasting influence on the island's fine cuisine.
Friday, June 26, 2009
Serbia - Children's Costumes, Museum Exhibit 2008
Issued : 10 November 2008
On stamp are two kind of costume: one from Sumadija Region and second from Kumodraz region
Sunday, June 21, 2009
India - Traditional Dances 1975
Technical Details:
Date of Issue: 20 October 1975
Denomination: 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.50, 2.00
Overall Size: 3.91 cm x 2.90 cm
Printing Size: 3.56 cm x 2.54 cm
Number per Issue Sheet: 35
Color: Multicolor
Perforation: 13 x 13
Watermark: Printed on Unwatermarked Adhesive Coated Paper
Printing Process: Photogravure
Number of Printing:
0.25 = 5,000,000.-
0.50 = 3,000,000.-
0.75 = 3,000,000.-
1.00 = 2,000,000.-
1.50 = 2,000,000.-
2.00 = 2,000,000.-
Design & Printed: India Security Press
Dances of India on Stamps
India has an unparalleled antiquity of dance traditions. Each regions has evolved a distinctive style of music and dance at different levels of society. There are thus tribal, folk, village and classical dances in each region of India. The history of these dances can be traced back to the civilization of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa: their community can be observed in their rich variegated manifestations in different States of India. From amongst these innumerable dances styles have emerged siz major dance forms, which are today known as classical dances of India. These dance styles are supported by literary and sculptural evidence and their history can be reconstructed from the poetic hymns of the Vedas and lyrics of the regional languages. Most of these styles draw their textual sanction from the Natyasastra written between the 2nd century B.C and 2nd century A.D. In the course of time each of these styles followed other texts written between the 8th and 17th century A.D. All these styles, however, have a common division of dance into pure or abstract dance and mime on the one hand and Tandeva and Lasya on the other.
Manipuri is a lyrical dance form from the eastern region of India. Although many forms of ritual, magical, community, and religious dances were known to Manipur before the advent of Vaishnava faith in the 18th century, the dances today known as Manipuri and specially its Rasa evolved as a result of the interaction of the Vaishnava cult and the several highly developed forms of ritual and religious dances which were prevalent in the area from times, immemorial.
Date of Issue: 20 October 1975
Denomination: 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.50, 2.00
Overall Size: 3.91 cm x 2.90 cm
Printing Size: 3.56 cm x 2.54 cm
Number per Issue Sheet: 35
Color: Multicolor
Perforation: 13 x 13
Watermark: Printed on Unwatermarked Adhesive Coated Paper
Printing Process: Photogravure
Number of Printing:
0.25 = 5,000,000.-
0.50 = 3,000,000.-
0.75 = 3,000,000.-
1.00 = 2,000,000.-
1.50 = 2,000,000.-
2.00 = 2,000,000.-
Design & Printed: India Security Press
Dances of India on Stamps
India has an unparalleled antiquity of dance traditions. Each regions has evolved a distinctive style of music and dance at different levels of society. There are thus tribal, folk, village and classical dances in each region of India. The history of these dances can be traced back to the civilization of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa: their community can be observed in their rich variegated manifestations in different States of India. From amongst these innumerable dances styles have emerged siz major dance forms, which are today known as classical dances of India. These dance styles are supported by literary and sculptural evidence and their history can be reconstructed from the poetic hymns of the Vedas and lyrics of the regional languages. Most of these styles draw their textual sanction from the Natyasastra written between the 2nd century B.C and 2nd century A.D. In the course of time each of these styles followed other texts written between the 8th and 17th century A.D. All these styles, however, have a common division of dance into pure or abstract dance and mime on the one hand and Tandeva and Lasya on the other.
0.25 Rupee - Bharata Natyam
Bharata Natyam developed in South India in its present form about two hundred years ago. While its poses are reminiscent of sculpture of the 10th century A.D. onwards, the thematic and musical content was given to it by musicians of the Tanjore courts of the 18th-19th centuries. It is characterized by straight lines, diagonals, triangles which are basic motifs for executing movements, as also patterns of floor choreography.
Bharata Natyam developed in South India in its present form about two hundred years ago. While its poses are reminiscent of sculpture of the 10th century A.D. onwards, the thematic and musical content was given to it by musicians of the Tanjore courts of the 18th-19th centuries. It is characterized by straight lines, diagonals, triangles which are basic motifs for executing movements, as also patterns of floor choreography.
0.50 Rupee - Odissi
Odissi is a close parallel of Bharata Natyam. It developed from musical play (sangita-nataka) and the dances of gymnasiums known as the akharas Sculptural evidence relating to the dance goes back to 2nd century B.C. From, the 12th century onwards there are inscriptions, manuscripts, and other records which speak of the prevalence of Orissi dance styles of ritual dances of temples and entertainments of the village squares.
2.00 Rupee - ManipuriOdissi is a close parallel of Bharata Natyam. It developed from musical play (sangita-nataka) and the dances of gymnasiums known as the akharas Sculptural evidence relating to the dance goes back to 2nd century B.C. From, the 12th century onwards there are inscriptions, manuscripts, and other records which speak of the prevalence of Orissi dance styles of ritual dances of temples and entertainments of the village squares.
0.75 Rupee - Kathak
Kathak from North India is the urban sophisticated style full of virtuosity and intricate craftsmanship. Commonly identified with the court traditions of the later Nawabs of Northern India, it is really an amalgam of several folk traditions; the traditional dance-drama forms prevalent in the temples of Mathura and Brindavan known as the Krishna and Radha Lilas and the sophistication of court tradition.
1.00 Rupee - Kathakali
Kathakali from Kerala is classical dance drama. It is quite different from any of the forms described above. Unlike the others, it is dramatic rather than narratives in character. Different roles are taken by different characters; the dancers are all men or were so, till recently. It takes epic mythological themes as its content and portrays them through an elaborate dramatic spectacle which is characterised by an otherworldly quality, a supernatural grandeur, a stylised over-size costume to give the impression of enlarging human proportions and a mask like make-up on the face which is governed by a complex symbolism of colour, line, and design.
1.50 Rupee - KuchipudiClosely related to Bharata Natyam is the dance style which is prevalent in Andhra Pradesh. It is sometimes called Kuchipudi, after the name of the village, or Bhama Kalapam (the story of Bhama, a consort of Khrisna). In this style there is a thin line of demarcation between dance-drama traditions of Bhama Kalapam and the solo-Kuchipudi. While the basic stance, the foot contacts and the general pattern of treating the human form is very close to Bharata Natyam, the style is freer and to that extent less austere than Bharata Natyam.
Kathak from North India is the urban sophisticated style full of virtuosity and intricate craftsmanship. Commonly identified with the court traditions of the later Nawabs of Northern India, it is really an amalgam of several folk traditions; the traditional dance-drama forms prevalent in the temples of Mathura and Brindavan known as the Krishna and Radha Lilas and the sophistication of court tradition.
1.00 Rupee - Kathakali
Kathakali from Kerala is classical dance drama. It is quite different from any of the forms described above. Unlike the others, it is dramatic rather than narratives in character. Different roles are taken by different characters; the dancers are all men or were so, till recently. It takes epic mythological themes as its content and portrays them through an elaborate dramatic spectacle which is characterised by an otherworldly quality, a supernatural grandeur, a stylised over-size costume to give the impression of enlarging human proportions and a mask like make-up on the face which is governed by a complex symbolism of colour, line, and design.
1.50 Rupee - KuchipudiClosely related to Bharata Natyam is the dance style which is prevalent in Andhra Pradesh. It is sometimes called Kuchipudi, after the name of the village, or Bhama Kalapam (the story of Bhama, a consort of Khrisna). In this style there is a thin line of demarcation between dance-drama traditions of Bhama Kalapam and the solo-Kuchipudi. While the basic stance, the foot contacts and the general pattern of treating the human form is very close to Bharata Natyam, the style is freer and to that extent less austere than Bharata Natyam.
Manipuri is a lyrical dance form from the eastern region of India. Although many forms of ritual, magical, community, and religious dances were known to Manipur before the advent of Vaishnava faith in the 18th century, the dances today known as Manipuri and specially its Rasa evolved as a result of the interaction of the Vaishnava cult and the several highly developed forms of ritual and religious dances which were prevalent in the area from times, immemorial.
Friday, June 19, 2009
Wednesday, June 17, 2009
Kazakhstan - Folk Costumes 2007
Series “People inhabiting the Republic of Kazakhstan”
Primary Theme: Mankind ( Clothes & Costumes)
Subject: Peoples of Kazakhstan - Uigurs & Tatars
(two stamped postage block).
Offset printing in five colors, perforation frame.
Layout/ Format: Miniature Sheet of 2 of 2 designs
Block size: 110 х 96 mm,
Stamp size: 27,5 х 33 mm.
Perforations: 11.50 x 11.50
Denomination: 105 Kazakhstan Tenge
Quantity: 100 000 pcs.
Painter: Danyar Mukhamedjanov.
Blocks imprinted by Beijing Postage Stamps Printing House (China)
Stamp Issuing Authority: Kazpost
"People inhabiting the Republic of Kazakhstan”. Uighurs.
“People inhabiting the Republic of Kazakhstan”. Tatars.
Kazakhstan - Folk Costumes 2004
12 May 2004
Series “People inhabiting the Republic of Kazakhstan”
Primary Theme: Geography & Meteorology Mankind
Subject: Popular Clothing - Inhabitants of the Republic of Uzbekhistan - Ouzbeks & Germans
(two stamped postage block).
Offset printing in four colors, embossing with golden foil, glazing, perforation frame.
Layout:/ Format: Miniature Sheet of 2 of 2 designs
Block size 110,0 х 96,0 mm
Stamp size 27,5 х 33,0 mm.
Perforations: 11.70 x 11.50
Denomination: 65.00 Kazakhstan Tenge
Painter D. Mukhamedjanov.
Blocks imprinted by Beijing Postage Stamps Printing House (China).
Stamp Issuing Authority: Kazpost
Uzbeks. Quantity 50 000 pcs.
German. Quantity 50 000 pcs
Tuesday, June 9, 2009
Romania - Folk Costumes 1968
Folk Costumes:
Issue date: 28 December 1968
Perforation: 12: 12 1/2
Design: Aida Tasgian-Constantinescu
5 Bani Neamt issued 2,000,000
40 Bani Neamt issued 2,000,000
55 Bani Hunedoara issued 2,000,000
1 Lei Hunedoara issued 1,500,000
1.60 Lei Brasov issued 1,500,000 (c over vertical line in frame)
2.40 Lei Brasov issued 300,000 (flower in hat yellow instead of red (r1,c))
Romania - Folk Costumes 1969
Folk Costumes:
Issue date: 15 February 1969
Perforation: 12: 12 1/2
Design: Aida Tasgian-Constantinescu
5 Bani Dolj issued 2,500,000 (green dot over M in roMana)
40 Bani Dolj issued 2,500,000
55 Bani Arges issued 2,500,000
1 Lei Arges issued 1,500,000
1.60 Lei Timisoara issued 1,500,000
2.40 Lei Timisoara issued 300,000
Monday, June 1, 2009
Thursday, May 28, 2009
Spain - Moda Espanola, Pedro Rodríguez 2008
Spanish Fashion - Pedro Rodríguez
| Issue date | 23/10/2008 |
|---|---|
| Stamping | Gravure with micro-relief |
| Paper | Phosphorescent, gummed, chalk coated paper |
| Perforated | 13 3/4 |
| Size of the Stamps | 28.8 x 49.8 mm. (vertical) |
| Face value of the stamps | €0.31 |
| Editiona | 500.000 |
Considered to be a sculptor of fashion and one of the most famous couturiers of the XX century, Pedro Rodriguez (Valencia 1895- Barcelona 1990) devoted his long life to the art of dressing. As a boy he learned to make his first stitches in the best tailor’s shop in Barcelona and later on went on to work in Rabaseda’s atelier where he learnt all about women’s couture. In 1919 he set up his own atelier with his wife Ana María, a professional couturier and began his career in the world of haute couture setting up in 1924 his atelier in the Paseo de Gracia in Barcelona. In 1929 he showed his collections in the Palacio Nacional de Montjuich, coinciding with the Feria Internacional de Muestras and became the most important couturier of his time. In 1937 he opened a showroom in San Sebastián and two years later in Madrid. His collections were showed in the most important catwalks in Europe and America obtaining international recognition and his showrooms were visited by the high bourgeoisie, the aristocracy and famous American film stars. The arrival of the industrial quality clothing industry in the late 60’s began to slowly displace haute couture and forced Pedro Rodriguez, as well as other couturiers, to close down his atelier.
The souvenir sheet depicts, from left to right and from top to bottom, a ball dress (1968-1970) with bodice, belt and a silk chiffon skirt hand painted in orange, pink and red degraded tones. The bodice is fitted and has cord shoulder straps. Next, there features a strapless dress (around 1947) with a full skirt in satin with jet and sequin embroideries reproducing floral motifs. At the hem there’s a flounce in silk tulle. From the 60’s there’s a chiffon dress with dots and flowers with a V-neck and a bow at the nape. Finally, there features a dress and coat in pink crepe. The coat has an embroidered strip with geometric motifs at the neck and cuffs. The images have been provided by the Museo del Traje (Dress Museum) in Madrid.
Spain - Moda Espanola 2007
Spanish Fashion - Cristóbal Balenciaga
| Issue date | 18/10/2007 |
|---|---|
| Stamping | Gravure |
| Paper | Phosphorescent, gummed, chalk coated paper |
| Perforated | 13 3/4 |
| Size of the Stamps | 28.8 x 49.8 mm. (vertical) |
| Block sheet size | 105 x 150 mm. (vertical) |
| Face value of the stamps | €0.39; €0.42; €0.58 and €0.78 |
| Editiona | 500,000 block sheets |
To mention fashion is to speak of trends, catwalks, shows and models; of a world where great fashion designers and design masters combine the art of dress making with new fabrics and textures to show the world the latest trends. Correos devotes this issue made up of a Souvenir sheet of four stamps to Spanish fashion and to one of the most famous Spanish designers of all times, Balenciaga.
Amongst the names that host a place of honour in the pages of international fashion is no doubt that of the Spaniard Cristóbal Balenciaga (Guetaria, Guipúzcoa 1895-Valencia 1972), the promoter of a new style proclaiming “finesse of simplicity”. Master Balenciaga began his learning in Madrid. After opening the first couture salons in San Sebastian, Madrid and Barcelona in 1937 he settles in Paris where he stands out for the sobriety and the sumptuousness of his evening dresses. In the fifties he creates a new line of tight bust dresses, wasp like waists and voluminous hips; coats with no buttons or collars, Japanese sleeves, tunic dresses and the so called Empire style. His designs were worn by queen Fabiola of Belgium, princess Grace of Monaco and the duchess of Windsor. He was against prêt a porter and mass production and retires in 1968.
The souvenir sheet depicts representative pieces of a wardrobe. The 0,39 € stamp depicts a chantilly lace ivory colour dress over taffeta transparencies. It has a waist cut and plenty of volume. It was made in Paris in 1948-1950.
The 0,42 € stamp depicts a two piece party dress in red silk satin. The little jacket with a Japanese sleeve is embroidered with sequins and metallic thread and silver lamé. Paris 1960.
A morning suit made up of a dress and coat in red made in the sixties features in the 0,58 € stamp.
The last stamp of 0,78 € depicts a yellow linen dress with a square shaped neckline. The sleeve is again in a Japanese style and the skirt is slightly pleated. It has eleven plastic buttons of the same colour.
The images that are depicted in the stamps have been given by the Museo del Traje (Costume Museum) in Madrid, an institution that aims at making known the historical evolution of clothing of the regions of Spain.
Spain - Autonomous Regions 2009
Autonomous Regions/ Communities
| Issue date | 02/01/2009 |
|---|---|
| Stamping | Offset |
| Paper | Self-adhesive, phosphorescent |
| Size of the Stamps | 40.9 x 28.8 mm (horizontal) |
| Medidas del carné sin plegar | 166 x 63 mm. |
| Face value of the stamps | Price A (1 stamp = normal letter up to 20 g for Spain) |
| Editiona | Unlimited |
The series devoted to the Autonomous Communities (regional governments) of Spain, is issued in a booklet format of self adhesive stamps with a domestic A rate.
In each stamp is depicted the outline of the map of each Autonomous Community with its banner and coat of arms as well as the Spanish National flag. The Spanish flag is yellow and red and it is based upon a design of 1785 which has suffered variations. The national coat of arms is regulated by the Ley 33/1981 of October 5th. It is the heraldic symbol of Spain and the elements that make it up have a nine century long tradition.
Since 1981, the principality of Asturias has its own Statute of Autonomy. Its flag depicts the Victory Cross in yellow over a blue background. From its arms pend the Greek letters alpha and Omega symbolising beginning to end.
The Statute of Autonomy of Galicia was established in 1981. Its institutional flag is inspired in the old banner of the maritime province of XIX La Coruña. The background is white and has a blue diagonal stripe crossing it.
Also in 1981 Cantabria was granted its Statute of Autonomy and its flag is horizontally divided into two halves, one white and the other red with the coat of arms in the middle.
The Statute of Autonomy of Cataluña dates back to 1979 and its flag is the traditional one of the King and Queen of Aragon. It is made up of four red and five yellow stripes.
Since 1979 the Basque Country also has its own Statute of Autonomy. Its flag, also known as Ikurriña, is a white cross with two green diagonal stripes over a red background.
Finally Andalucía was also one of the first to be granted the Statute of Autonomy in 1981. The colours of its banner, white and green evoke the colours of the Andalusian landscape and symbolise the hope in the future and peace. The coat of arms depicts the figure of Hercules holding two lions between columns.
Tuesday, May 26, 2009
Faroe Island - Faroese Dances, by Czeslaw Slania 2003
Day of issue: 22 September 2003
Stamp #100 by Czeslaw Slania for the Faroe Islands.
Motif: Emil Krause: Faroese dance in Viðareiði.
Size: 35.60 x 46.00 mm
Perforation 13 per 2 cm
Printing method: Stell plate engraving/offset
Printer: Posten Frimärken, Sweden
Czeslaw Slania, engraver to the Swedish Court is known all over the world by technicians and artists in engraving for his skill, accuracy and speed. Over 1000 stamps has he engraved, an incredible world record that probably never will be beaten.
Slania was born 22nd October 1921, in the small Polish town Czeladž. Even as a boy he started designing miniatures, first of all portraits… and horses. He also made drawings of his schoolmates and copied money bills or stamps. He later was educated at the Academy of Fine Arts in Krakow, which is recognized as one of Europe's most reputed Art Graphic Centres. Already as a student, he was offered employment with the Polish Stamp Printing House, where he worked for 6 years. In 1956, at the age of 35, Czeslaw Slania moved to Sweden, where he after a couple of years started working for the Swedish Post. He has now engraved stamps for the Swedish Post through 40 years but has also produced stamps for postal authorities all over the world. Furthermore, he has been appointed Royal Court Engraver in Sweden, Denmark and Monaco, and won numerous awards for the beauty, speed and proliferation of his engravings.
He has also engraved banknotes and a large number of private works serving as practice work i.e. a set showing famous movie actresses and another set showing all the champions of heavyweight boxing from 1889 to 1964.
Slania's versatility is evident in the broad range of subject matter he happily tackles, from royal portraits and flora and fauna to film stars. He even finds time and space to include the odd personal reference within his minuscule canvas: a caricature of himself or the names of friends. "One of the pleasures is", says Slania, "that the motifs are so varied. That makes it very interesting to work here as an engraver. I like particularly when there are many different details in a motif, such as horses, clouds, naked skin, a small brooch ... this makes things pleasantly complicated, exactly as on my 1000th stamp!"
Czeslaw Slania engraved the first stamps issued by Postverk Føroya in 1976, and he has engraved one hundred Faroese stamps altogether.
“Dance in a main room“
Emil Krause (1871-1945) educated painter and lithographic lived in Farum in Denmark. He visited the Faroe Islands on two occasions (in 1904 and in 1932) where he among other things painted the picture “Dance in a main room in the Faroe Islands” (1905) picturing the traditional Faroese chain dance in the village Viðareiði on the island Viðoy. The painting hangs in the town council of the capital Tórshavn. The particular about this picture is that Krause appearantly has painted two versions of the same subject. The other painting hangs in the town council of Klaksvík.
Emil Krause has especially asserted himself through his genre pictures, e.g. of the life of the Faroese fishermen, and Copenhagen motifs like pictures of the fishwives at Gammel Strand. Besides he has done a large number of portraits and landscape paintings and paintings of the old Copenhagen and the provinces.
Slania was born 22nd October 1921, in the small Polish town Czeladž. Even as a boy he started designing miniatures, first of all portraits… and horses. He also made drawings of his schoolmates and copied money bills or stamps. He later was educated at the Academy of Fine Arts in Krakow, which is recognized as one of Europe's most reputed Art Graphic Centres. Already as a student, he was offered employment with the Polish Stamp Printing House, where he worked for 6 years. In 1956, at the age of 35, Czeslaw Slania moved to Sweden, where he after a couple of years started working for the Swedish Post. He has now engraved stamps for the Swedish Post through 40 years but has also produced stamps for postal authorities all over the world. Furthermore, he has been appointed Royal Court Engraver in Sweden, Denmark and Monaco, and won numerous awards for the beauty, speed and proliferation of his engravings.
He has also engraved banknotes and a large number of private works serving as practice work i.e. a set showing famous movie actresses and another set showing all the champions of heavyweight boxing from 1889 to 1964.
Slania's versatility is evident in the broad range of subject matter he happily tackles, from royal portraits and flora and fauna to film stars. He even finds time and space to include the odd personal reference within his minuscule canvas: a caricature of himself or the names of friends. "One of the pleasures is", says Slania, "that the motifs are so varied. That makes it very interesting to work here as an engraver. I like particularly when there are many different details in a motif, such as horses, clouds, naked skin, a small brooch ... this makes things pleasantly complicated, exactly as on my 1000th stamp!"
Czeslaw Slania engraved the first stamps issued by Postverk Føroya in 1976, and he has engraved one hundred Faroese stamps altogether.
“Dance in a main room“
Emil Krause (1871-1945) educated painter and lithographic lived in Farum in Denmark. He visited the Faroe Islands on two occasions (in 1904 and in 1932) where he among other things painted the picture “Dance in a main room in the Faroe Islands” (1905) picturing the traditional Faroese chain dance in the village Viðareiði on the island Viðoy. The painting hangs in the town council of the capital Tórshavn. The particular about this picture is that Krause appearantly has painted two versions of the same subject. The other painting hangs in the town council of Klaksvík.
Emil Krause has especially asserted himself through his genre pictures, e.g. of the life of the Faroese fishermen, and Copenhagen motifs like pictures of the fishwives at Gammel Strand. Besides he has done a large number of portraits and landscape paintings and paintings of the old Copenhagen and the provinces.
Faroe Island - National Costumes, by Czeslaw Slania 1989
National Costumes of the Faroe Islands
Date of Issue: 10 April 1989
350 National Costumes - Sjostuka and Stavnhetta
600 National Costumes - Stakkur
Engraver: Czeslaw Slania
The stamps do not depict the usual national costume, but rather more finer festive clothes.
National Costumes
The traditional national costume, which, lide the national costumes of many other European countries, originates from the common people´s everyday clothes in the 19th century, is still widely used in the Faroes. In recent years it has gained renewed popularity, especially among young people. The national costume is used for festive occasions, e.g. weddings and gatherings.
However, the stamps do not depict the usual national costume, but rather more finer festive clothes. The female costume is called stakkur, the male costume sjóstúka. On his head the man also wears a stavnhetta.
The stakkur has been used as finery, particularly as bridal dresses, for many centuries. The earliest account dates back to 1673. In the olden days only the spouses of the wealthiest farmers wore the stakkur. It fell to female descendants by inheritance, so that generations of girls could wear it as wedding finery. The stakkur is a long whole dress, made of azure, scarlet or grassgreen cloth – on rare occasions of black cloth. Silk is often used today. The skirt has numerous tucks with a princesse-cut bodice. The sleeves are long and narrow with cuffs and quilled laces. The colour of the cuffs and bosom is different from the rest of the dress – in this case it is red. A silk collar and a belt made of silver or velvet with attached silverplates goes with the stakkur. One end of the belt, the sproti, which may be ornamented with silver, hangs loosly down the skirt. The matching ornaments are eyelets, lace and a large, preferably golden, square brooch with small loose leaves, stakkanál, which is fastened onto the neckwear and the bosom. On her head the woman often wears a crown or a diadem. The stakkur, which for years has been relatively rare, is now enjoying a renaissance.
The sjóstúka is a kneelong black frieze coat, which originates from men´s everyday clothes 150-200 years ago. In the middle of the 19th century the sjóstúka became finery. The coat is sewn with side vents, the back is cut in one piece, the top of the sleeves are wide and rounded at the wrist with short slits and a button. The coat has black glass buttuns, except the two uppermost, which are made of silver and connected with a chain. White stockings and leather shoes with silver buckles often go with the sjóstúka. The headgear, stavnhetta, was a symbol of dignity, which together with sjóstúka was the finery of wealthy farmers and other persons of rank. The sjóstúka and stavnhetta have in later years enjoyed a certain popularity, but the costume is still relatively rare.
Date of Issue: 10 April 1989
350 National Costumes - Sjostuka and Stavnhetta
600 National Costumes - Stakkur
Engraver: Czeslaw Slania
The stamps do not depict the usual national costume, but rather more finer festive clothes.
National Costumes
The traditional national costume, which, lide the national costumes of many other European countries, originates from the common people´s everyday clothes in the 19th century, is still widely used in the Faroes. In recent years it has gained renewed popularity, especially among young people. The national costume is used for festive occasions, e.g. weddings and gatherings.
However, the stamps do not depict the usual national costume, but rather more finer festive clothes. The female costume is called stakkur, the male costume sjóstúka. On his head the man also wears a stavnhetta.
The stakkur has been used as finery, particularly as bridal dresses, for many centuries. The earliest account dates back to 1673. In the olden days only the spouses of the wealthiest farmers wore the stakkur. It fell to female descendants by inheritance, so that generations of girls could wear it as wedding finery. The stakkur is a long whole dress, made of azure, scarlet or grassgreen cloth – on rare occasions of black cloth. Silk is often used today. The skirt has numerous tucks with a princesse-cut bodice. The sleeves are long and narrow with cuffs and quilled laces. The colour of the cuffs and bosom is different from the rest of the dress – in this case it is red. A silk collar and a belt made of silver or velvet with attached silverplates goes with the stakkur. One end of the belt, the sproti, which may be ornamented with silver, hangs loosly down the skirt. The matching ornaments are eyelets, lace and a large, preferably golden, square brooch with small loose leaves, stakkanál, which is fastened onto the neckwear and the bosom. On her head the woman often wears a crown or a diadem. The stakkur, which for years has been relatively rare, is now enjoying a renaissance.
The sjóstúka is a kneelong black frieze coat, which originates from men´s everyday clothes 150-200 years ago. In the middle of the 19th century the sjóstúka became finery. The coat is sewn with side vents, the back is cut in one piece, the top of the sleeves are wide and rounded at the wrist with short slits and a button. The coat has black glass buttuns, except the two uppermost, which are made of silver and connected with a chain. White stockings and leather shoes with silver buckles often go with the sjóstúka. The headgear, stavnhetta, was a symbol of dignity, which together with sjóstúka was the finery of wealthy farmers and other persons of rank. The sjóstúka and stavnhetta have in later years enjoyed a certain popularity, but the costume is still relatively rare.
Sunday, May 24, 2009
Romania - Coat of Arms 1976
Title: National Coat of Arms
Date of Issued: 15 June 1976
Design: Ion Dumitrana
Price: 1.75Lei
Perforation: 13 1/2
Issued: 1,000,000 stamps
Flaws: Coloured dot on leg of P in POSTA (r3, c2)
Title: Districts - Coat of Arms
Date of Issued: 20 December 1976
Design: Ion Dumitrana
Price: 55 Bani
Perforation: 13 1/2
Issued: 1,000,000 sets
1. Alba
2. Arad
3. Arges
4. Bacau
5. Bihor
6. Bistrita-Nasaud
7. Botosani
8. Brasov
9. Braila
10. Buzau
11. Caras-Severin
12. Cluj
13. Constanta
14. Covasna Flaws: last A of ROMANA detoriated inside (r3, c8)
15. Dimbovita
(as far as I can see most counties have changed their coat of arms today)
Romania - Coat of Arms 1977
Title: Districts - Coat of Arms
Date of Issued: 05 September 1977
Design: Ion Dumitrana
Price: 55 Bani
Perforation: 13 1/2
Issued: 1,000,000 sets
1. Dolj
2. Galati
3. Gorj
4. Harghita
5. Hunedoara
6. Ialomita
7. Iasi
8. Ilfov
9. Maramures
10. Mehidinti
11. Mures
12. Neamt Flaws: black patch under T in NEAMT (r3, c4)
13. Olt
14. Prahova
15. Salaj
16. Satu Mare
17. Sibiu
18. Suceava
19. Teleorman
20. Timis
21. Tulcea
22. Vaslui
23. Vilcea
24. Vrancea
25. Romanian Post
(as far as I can see most counties have changed their coat of arms today)
Romania - Coat of Arms 1979
Title: Cities - Coat of Arms
Date of Issued: 25 October 1979
Design: Ion Dumitrana
Price: 1.20 Lei
Perforation: 13 1/2
Issued: 500,000 sets
1. Alba Iulia
2. Arad
3. Bacau
4. Baia Mare
5. Birlad
6. Botosani
7. Braila
8. Brasov
9. Buzau
10. Calarasi
11. Cluj
12. Constanta
13. Craiova
14. Dej
15. Deva
16. Drobeta Turnu Severin
17. Focsani
18. Galati
19. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej
20. Giurgiu
21. Hunedoara
22. Iasi
23. Lugoj
24. Medias
25. Oderheiu Secuiesc
Romania - Coat of Arms 1980
Title: Cities - Coat of Arms
Date of Issued: 05 January 1980
Design: Ion Dumitrana
Price: 1.20 Lei
Perforation: 13 1/2
Issued: 500,000 sets Issued in pairs
1. Bucuresti Flaws: yellow dot under first cog at right
2. Pitesti
3. Oradea
4. Petrosani
5. Piatra Neamt
6. Ploiesti
7. Resita
8. Rimnicu Vilcea
9. Roman
10. Satu Mare
11. Sibiu
12. Sighetu Marmatiei
13. Sighisoara
14. Suceava
15. Tecuci
16. Timisoara
17. Tirgoviste
18. Tirgu Jiu
19. Tirgu Mures
20. Tulcea
21. Turda
22. Turnu Magurele
Romania - 70 Years Romanian Communist Party 1988
Date of Issued: 29 December 1988
Perforation: 13 1/4
Quantity: 200,000 stamps
Flaws:
white dot under N in National + brown dot at wheat (r1, c1)
black dot at top between T&I in naTIonal (r5, c4)
white dot under R in unitaR (r1, c5)
blue patch in right top corner (r1, c4)
red dot over O in rOmana (r2, c3)
black dot under U in Unitar (r3, c2)
The Communist Party
Founded in 1921, the Communist Party was declared illegal in 1924 and forced underground until 1944. Because of the party's association with Moscow, it was unable to attract broad support. The communists came to power as a result of the Soviet occupation of Romania during the final year of the war. With Soviet backing, the party gradually consolidated power and sought to extend its base of popular support. In early 1948, it merged with a wing of the Social Democratic Party to form the Romanian Workers' Party. By the end of 1952, however, almost all of the Social Democrats had been replaced by Communists.
Membership
At the close of World War II the Communist Party had fewer than 1,000 members. Three years later, at the official congress that sanctioned the merger with the Social Democratic Party, it reported more than 1 million members. This rapid growth was the outcome of an intensive propaganda campaign and membership drive that employed political and economic pressures. Subsequently, a purge of socalled hostile and nominal members during the early 1950s resulted in the expulsion of approximately 465,000 persons.
During the early years of full Communist control, the party considered itself the vanguard of the working class and made a sustained effort to recruit workers. By the end of 1950, the party reported that 64 percent of leading party positions and 40 percent of higher government posts were filled by members of the working class. Efforts to recruit workers into the party, however, consistently fell short of goals.
By 1965, when the name Romanian Communist Party was officially adopted, membership had reached 1,450,000--about 8 percent of the country's population. Membership composition at that time was 44 percent workers, 34 percent peasants, 10 per cent intelligentsia, and 12 percent other categories.
After his accession to power in 1965, Ceausescu sought to increase the party's influence, broaden the base of popular support, and bring in new members. His efforts to increase PCR membership were extremely effective. By February 1971, the party claimed 2.1 million members. The Twelfth Party Congress in 1979 estimated membership at 3 million, and by March 1988, the PCR had grown to some 3.7 million members--more than twice as many as in 1965, when Ceausescu came to power. Thus, in the late 1980s, some 23 percent of Romania's adult population and 33 percent of its working population belonged to the PCR.
At the Thirteenth Party Congress in November 1984, it was announced that the nationality composition of the PCR was 90 percent Romanian, 7 percent Hungarian (a drop of more than 2 percent since the Twelfth Party Congress), less than 1 percent German, and the remainder other nationalities.
As of 1988, workers made up about 55 percent of the party membership, peasants 15 percent, and intellectuals and other groups 30 percent. Because of the PCR's special effort to recruit members from industry, construction, and transportation, by late 1981 some 45.7 percent of workers in these sectors belonged to the party. In 1980 roughly 524,000 PCR members worked in agriculture. Figures on the educational level of the membership in 1980 indicated that 11 percent held college diplomas, 15 percent had diplomas from other institutions of higher learning, and 26 percent had received technical or professional training.
In the 1980s, statistics on the age composition of the party were no longer published. The official comment on the subject was that the party had a "proper" age composition. Outside observers, however, believed that the average age of the membership had risen dramatically. The share of pensioners and housewives increased from 6.6 percent in 1965 to 9 percent in 1988.
Women traditionally were underrepresented in the PCR. In late 1980, they accounted for only 28.7 percent of the party's members, prompting Ceausescu to call for increasing their representation to about 35 percent.
A document on the selection and training of party cadres adopted by a Central Committee plenum in April 1988 provided information on the backgrounds of individuals staffing the political apparatus. According to that document, workers, foremen, and technicians supplied 79.8 percent of the cadres of the PCR apparatus, 80.1 percent of the apparatus of the Union of Communist Youth (Uniunea Tineretului Comunist, UTC), and 88.7 percent of the trade union apparatus. By late 1987, the proportion of women in the party apparatus had risen to 27.8 percent from only 16.8 percent in 1983. More than 67 percent of activists in the state apparatus and 59.4 percent in the trade unions were under forty-five years of age. The document also asserted that 95.7 percent of PCR Central Committee activists and 90.7 percent of activists in judet, municipal, and town party committees were graduates of, or were attending, state institutions of higher education.
Organizational Structure
As the fundamental document of the PCR, the party statutes set basic policy on party organization, operation, and membership. Originally adopted in May 1948, the statutes underwent several modifications, with significant revisions in 1955, 1965, 1967, 1969, 1974, and 1984. Many of these changes strengthened Ceausescu's hold on the party and reduced the role of rank-and- file members.
All organs of the party were closely interrelated and operated on the principle of democratic centralism. (Derived from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, this concept required a firm hierarchical subordination of each party organ to the next higher unit. In practice, party programs and policies were directed from the center and decisions of higher organs were unconditionally binding on all lower organs and on individual members.) The statutes called for the free and open discussion of policy questions at congresses, conferences, and local membership meetings. But discipline required that once a decision was made, the minority fully submitted to the will of the majority.
According to the party statutes, the supreme organ of the PCR was the party congress, consisting of delegates elected by the judet conferences at a ratio of 1 delegate per 1,000 members. The party congress, which convened at least once every five years, elected the PCR general secretary, the Central Committee, and the Central Auditing Commission and discussed and adopted programs and policies proposed by central party organs.
Between congresses the leading party organ was the Central Committee. At the Thirteenth Party Congress in 1984, the Central Committee consisted of 265 full and 181 candidate members--twice as many members as in 1969. The Central Committee was responsible for the overall direction of party activities and the implementation of policies established by the party congress. In addition, it screened nominations for the more important party and state positions. Party statutes required a plenary session of the Central Committee at least four times a year.
Several important changes in the structure of the party leadership were enacted by the Central Committee in March 1974, a few months before the Eleventh Party Congress. The Standing Presidium of the Central Committee, whose members were the most influential individuals in the party, was abolished and replaced by the Political Executive Committee ( Polexco) Permanent Bureau. Although formally the Central Committee elected the leading party organs, in practice the Polexco Permanent Bureau was a selfperpetuating body, and any change in its membership or in that of the Secretariat was generated from within rather than through a democratic decision by the Central Committee. The Secretariat, most of whose members were full or candidate members of the Polexco, had responsibility for overseeing the implementation of party decisions. As general secretary of the party, Ceausescu headed both the Polexco Permanent Bureau and the Secretariat and chaired the Polexco.
The Central Committee was backed by an extensive bureaucratic structure that in many instances paralleled the organization of the government ministries. A chancellery office, headed by a chief and three deputies, coordinated the committee's overall administrative activities. Party work was organized under several permanent sections, which were typically headed by a supervisory secretary, and a number of administrative sections and functional commissions. The designations of the sections were agriculture, armed forces and security forces, cadre, culture and education, economic affairs, foreign relations, letters and audiences, local economic administration, organization, party affairs, propaganda and media, social problems, and administration.
In 1989 the following commissions were directly tied to the Central Committee: the Party and State Cadres Commission; the Ideology, Political and Cultural Activities, and Social Education Commission; the Party Organization and Mass and Public Organization Commission; and the Economic Cooperation and International Relations Commission. Most of these commissions appeared redundant, addressing problems within the purview of the Central Committee sections, various joint party-state organizations, and the ministries.
As the center for decision-making and policy control, the Polexco Permanent Bureau was the most powerful body in the country. Established in 1974, the Permanent Bureau went through several stages. Initially it consisted of five members, but after the Twelfth Party Congress in 1979, it expanded to fifteen members. In 1984, however, it was reduced to eight members, including Nicolae and Elena Ceausescu, and in June 1988 it had only seven members. Most observers agreed that in fact the decision-making process was limited to the Ceausescus and their most trusted allies, not all of whom held positions in the Permanent Bureau, the Polexco, or the Secretariat.
Little information was available on the responsibilities of the Polexco, although some observers regarded it as an administrative link between the Permanent Bureau and the Central Committee. In practice, it functioned as a rump Central Committee when the latter was not in session. The Secretariat served as the continuing administrative unit of the party. It supervised the execution of policies decreed by the Permanent Bureau.
Two other important party organs functioned under the supervision of the Permanent Bureau and the Secretariat: the Central Auditing Commission and the Central Collegium, formerly known as the Party Control Commission. Consisting of seventy-three members (none of whom could belong to the Central Committee), the Central Auditing Commission was empowered to exercise general control over party financial affairs and examine the management of finances by the various party organs. During the 1980s, the commission literally became a place of exile for officials who had fallen out of favor. The twenty-two-member Central Collegium dealt with matters of party discipline and served as a type of appeals court for penalties imposed on members by judet or local party committees.
An interlocking of authority and functions at the highest level of the party and state was evidenced in the frequency with which the senior party officials also held important government posts. In the late 1980s, all the members of the Polexco Permanent Bureau, the Polexco, and the Secretariat were GNA deputies, and most of them held prominent positions in the State Council, the Defense Council, or the Council of Ministers.
The party statutes described the basic party organization as the foundation of the party. Basic party organizations existed in factories, offices, cooperatives, military and police units, social and cultural organizations, and residential areas. Some of the party units consisted of a few members, whereas those in the larger enterprises could have as many as 300 members. In 1980 there were an estimated 64,200 basic party organizations.
The local and occupational basic party organizations implemented party directives and programs, recruited and indoctrinated new members, and disseminated propaganda directed at those outside the party. Members had the duty to participate in social, economic, and cultural activities, particularly those associated with economic enterprises, and to examine critically production and community life in the light of party ideology and goals. In all their activities, the local party units were required to uphold the discipline of the party and to adhere to the policies established by the ruling bodies of the PCR.
Between the basic party organizations and the higher organs of the PCR stood a hierarchy of party committees organized on the judet, town, and communal levels. Each of these units was directly subordinate to the next higher level of the party organization. Each party committee set up its own bureau and elected a secretariat. In most cases the secretariat consisted of a first secretary, a first vice-chairman, and three or more vicechairmen or secretaries.
The activity of the bureau was conducted through several functional departments, which generally consisted of sections on personnel, administration, agitation and propaganda, economic enterprises, youth, and women's affairs. The judet and city committee also had their own control commission and training programs. The first secretary of the judet committee served as chairman of the judet people's council, linking the party and government offices.
At each of these levels--judet, city, town, and commune--the highest authoritative organ was the party conference, which played a role similar to that of the party congress on the national level. The party statutes called for the convening of conferences every five years in the judete, in the city of Bucharest, and in the larger towns. In communes and smaller towns the conference was held every two years. Although the conferences were held ostensibly to discuss problems and formulate policies, they served in practice as transmission belts for the official party line set down by the central PCR authorities. Judet conferences and the Bucharest city conference elected candidates to the national party Congress.
Ideology and Party Program
In the early 1970s, the PCR carried on a campaign to strengthen the Marxist character of its ideological, cultural, and educational activities. Within limits Ceausescu encouraged "socialist democracy" and open communication between the masses and the party leadership. He defined "socialist democracy" as a spirit of social responsibility among the citizens to perform their duties in accordance with the needs and imperatives of society as a whole. Socialist democracy sought to stimulate the masses to support the cause of socialism by involving them in PCR programs so that the individual citizen's goals and values coincided with those of the party.
In the mid-1970s, Ceausescu announced a new ideological program and the tightening of party control over government, science, and cultural life. Some observers regarded this campaign as a response to Soviet criticism of Ceausescu's foreign policy. It may have been a reminder to Moscow that socialism was not endangered in Romania and that the Soviets could not use this pretext to justify intervention as they had done in Czechoslovakia in 1968. Others considered it an assertion of authority by Ceausescu to combat domestic ideological laxity and what he perceived as corrupting Western influences. Partially directed at the youth of the nation, the campaign included curbs on alcohol in the youth clubs and on the screening of foreign television programs and music.
Another objective was increased party control over literature and cultural life. New ideological guidelines were issued for writers, publishers, and theaters. Ceausescu declared that the arts must serve the single purpose of socialist-communist education. At the same time, he called for increasing guidance of the arts by all levels of the PCR and requested that works of art and literature be judged for their conformity to party standards and their service to the working class. Although Ceausescu ruled out repressive measures, he asserted that the party would rely on persuasion to implement the new ideological program.
In the late 1980s, the PCR ideological program consisted of two major components--the political and ideological education of the citizenry and the scientific study of Romanian history. The former entailed the thorough study of PCR experience, Ceausescu's theses and recommendations, and the classics of Marxism-Leninism. The scientific study of Romania's history was considered profoundly important in developing the population's awareness of their DacianRoman origin and the continuity of Romanian habitation of their homeland, particularly in the face of historical claims made by neighboring countries.
During the 1980s, the party's perception of its role in society changed. It no longer saw itself as the detached vanguard of the working class, but rather as the vital center of the nation and society. The party's identification with national interests was interpreted as rejection of the concept of "dictatorship of the proletariat," a phrase that was supplanted in party parlance by "state of the revolutionary workers' democracy." The policies pursued by the PCR were designed to maintain firm control of economic planning and administration. Party control was enhanced by the territorial and administrative reorganization of 1968, which set up commissions in all of the new judete to function under the direct supervision of the judet PCR committees. These commissions gave the party direct control over local economic programs.
Party Training
In early 1970, the PCR carried out a major reorganization of its primary institution for the training of leading party workers, the Stefan Gheorghiu Party Academy, which was renamed the Stefan Gheorghiu Academy for Social-Political Education and the Training of Leading Cadres. The academy's mission was to train party activists and develop party leaders who could resolve problems by "applying the science of political leadership to the party and society." In September 1986, the academy was renamed the Party Academy for Social and Political Training, but its structure was not changed.
In 1989 the academy still consisted of two departments, one for the training of cadres in the party and mass organizations and a second for the training of personnel working in economic and state administration. Each department was subdivided into a number of institutes, sections, and training centers.
Admission to academy programs was carefully controlled by the party. Courses in the first department lasted four years, and candidates were selected from among activists in the judet and city party committees, central PCR bodies, and mass organizations. Political activists in the Ministry of National Defense, the Ministry of Interior, and the Department of State Security were also eligible for training in the first department.
The PCR also maintained the Institute of Historical and SocialPolitical Studies in Bucharest, which functioned under the direct supervision of the Central Committee, and lower-level training programs that operated under the judet party committees.
In 1988 the PCR Central Committee adopted a document setting forth policy on cadre political and ideological training. The document demanded that party and state bodies work with greater determination to accomplish the political, ideological, and revolutionary education of cadres. The Central Committee also adopted a draft program for improving cadre training in the party apparatus, the ministries, and industrial enterprises. It called for special programs to send party workers without access to political schools to university courses for political and managerial training.
The study programs, which included practical work, discussion of specific problems, and field trips, covered such subjects as automated data processing, socioeconomic analysis, forecasting, and many specialized topics. To facilitate training of large numbers, branches of the Party Academy's Center for the Education and Training of Party and Mass Organization Cadres were set up in Bucharest and in three judete.
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